|
|
|
|
Sponsored
Results:
Books of the Bible --> Genesis |
|
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z |
|
E |
 Encyclopedia
Judaica 2nd Edition
An essential source of information on
Jewish life, culture, history, and
religion.
In 1972, the Encyclopaedia Judaica
fulfilled the longstanding dream of
capturing the full richness of Jewish
culture in a single authoritative
publication, heralded in the scholarly
community as one of the best reference
works ever compiled.
|
BOOK OF By
EXODUS: Emil G. Hirsch Benno Jacob S. R.
Driver
ARTICLE HEADINGS:
—Biblical Data:
Name and Contents
The Call of Moses
The Preparation
The Plagues:
The Departure.
Pharaoh's Death
The March to Sinai
Israel's Call:
The Law and the Covenant
The Sanctuary and the Priests
The Sin of the People with the Golden Calf
The Sanctuary and the Garments of the
Priests
Religion
Revelations of God
God the Absolutely Exalted One
Israel
The Moral Law
Cult
Critical View I.:
Characteristics of JE.
Characteristics of P
P's Representation of the Tabernacle
Unhistorical
Critical View II.:
Redaction
Errors of Critical School
—Biblical Data:
The second book of the Torah or Pentateuch
is called by the Jews , from the opening
words, or briefly . The Greek name is
????? (in Philo also ??????), that is,
"departure"; the Latin, "[Liber] Exodus."
It contains, according to the Masorah,
1,209 (?) verses in 164 sections ("parashiyyot"),
69 ending in the middle of the line ("petuhot"
= "open"), and 95 with a space in the
middle of the line ("setumot"="closed"),
in 29 chapters ("sedarim"), and 14
sections ("pisk.ot"), for reading on the
Sabbath, in 11 lessons. The common
division into 40 chapters is taken from
the Vulgate. |
|
|
|
|
Best Deals found at:
Aharon's Jewish Books and Judaica
600 South Holly Street Suite 103
Denver, Colorado 80246
303-322-7345
800-830-8660
-
Judaic
Online store that
provides a wide selection of all types of Judaica,
Jewish gifts, Jewish books, Jewish ritual items and
more
www.judaic.com
|
|
|
|
Name
and Contents.
The second book of the Torah is the
organic continuation of the first book.
It narrates the departure of the
descendants of the Patriarchs, increased
to a people, from servitude in Egypt,
their journey to Sinai, and the
revelations and laws which they received
there. It is a well-planned and
well-arranged work, displaying much
literary skill in the command over great
masses of material as well as in the
marshaling of the facts. It is
homogeneous in its views, and is not
encumbered by unnecessary repetitions,
though the sequel to it is found only in
the following books. It is divided into
two principal sections: (1) ch. i-xviii.,
recounting Israel's deliverance from
Egypt; (2) ch. xix.-xl., the
promulgation of the Law. These may again
be divided into subsections.
Ch. i.-iv.: The Call of Moses.
The Israelites living in Egypt are
oppressed by forced labor,imposed upon
them by a new Pharaoh who desires to
destroy them (i.). The exposed male
infant of a Levitic family (whose name,
in order not to divert interest from the
main story, is not given here), is found
by Pharaoh's daughter, who calls him
"Moses" and adopts him. Moses, grown to
man's estate, sympathizes with his
suffering brethren, and flees the
country because he has slain an Egyptian
overseer. He goes to Midian, becomes
shepherd to the priest Jethro, and
marries the latter's daughter Zipporah
(ii.). As he is feeding the sheep on
Mount Horeb, he has a marvelous
experience. God appears to him from a
thorn-bush which, though burning, is not
consumed. He reveals Himself as the God
of the Fathers of Israel, and orders
Moses to go before Pharaoh and demand
the release of his brethren. God
overcomes Moses' reluctance by His
promises of supreme aid, and appoints
his brother Aaron to be his assistant.
Moses then returns to Egypt.
Ch. v., vi.: The Preparation.
As Pharaoh not only refuses Moses'
request, but oppresses the people still
further, Moses complains to God, who
thereupon announces to him that He will
now display His power and will surely
liberate Israel. At this point the
genealogy of Moses and his family is
inserted, in order that it may not later
interrupt or weaken in any way the story
which follows.
Ch. vii.-x.: The Plagues:
the proofs of God's power. After God has
assigned their tasks to Moses and Aaron,
and predicted Pharaoh's obduracy, and
after they have attested their
commission by working a miracle before
Pharaoh (vii. 1-13), God sends nine
plagues over Pharaoh, and his land: (1)
the changing of the waters of the Nile
into blood (, vii. 14-25); (2) frogs (,
vii. 28-viii. 11); (3) vermin (, viii.
12-15); (4) noxious animals (, viii.
16-28); (5) death of the cattle (, ix.
1-7); (6) boils upon men and beasts (,
ix. 9-12); (7) storms, killing men and
beasts (, ix. 13-35); (8) locusts that
devour all vegetation(, x. 1-20); (9)
deep darkness for three days (, x.
21-29). These plagues, which give
evidence of God's power over nature, are
increasingly obnoxious and dangerous,
and are so arranged that every third
plague (hence narrated more briefly)
confirms the two preceding ones
(narrated more in detail), and each
group follows naturally upon the
preceding one. The story displays a
skilful climax, rhythm, and variety.
Pharaoh, however, is untouched by the
first plague, which his magicians can
imitate; after the second plague, which
they can reproduce, but not check, he
begins to supplicate; after the third
plague he allows his magicians to
comfort him; from the third on he makes
fresh promises after each plague, but
recalls them when the danger is past,
and remains obdurate.
Ch. xi-xiii. 16: The Departure.
The last, decisive blow, namely, the
death of all the first-born of the
Egyptians (), and the departure are
announced. For the protection of their
homes the Israelites are commanded to
kill a lamb () and to eat it quickly
with unleavened bread () and bitter
herbs (), on the 14th of the first
month, and to be ready for immediate
departure. The first-born of all the
Egyptians die. Pharaoh dismisses the
Israelites. To the number of 600,000
men, not including women and children,
they leave the country, after a sojourn
of 430 years, carrying with them rich
gifts from benevolent Egyptians. They go
first from Rameses to Succoth. Chap.
xii. 43—xiii. 16 contain supplementary
regulations regarding the future
observance of the Passover.
Ch. xiii. 17-xv. 21: Pharaoh's Death.
Repenting his clemency, Pharaoh, with
chariots and horsemen, pursues the
Israelites, who have reached the shores
of the Red Sea (), divinely guided by
day by a pillar of cloud, and by night
by a pillar of fire. The Israelites pass
dry-shod through the waters, which
marvelously recede before them while
engulfing Pharaoh and his entire army.
Moses and his people sing a song of
praise to God.
Ch. xv. 22-xviii.: The March to Sinai.
The Israelites journey into the desert
of Shur, to Mara. The people,
complaining of lack of water, are
satisfied. They reach Elim. In the
desert of Sin they complain of lack of
food. God sends them quails, and from
this time on, except on the Sabbath,
sends them a daily shower of manna. Upon
arrival at Rephidim the people again
complain of lack of water. God gives
them water from a rock ("Massah and
Meribah" = "place of temptation and
quarrels"; xvii. 7). Amalek attacks
Israel and is vanquished by Joshua. God
commands eternal war against Amalek.
Moses' father-in-law, Jethro, having
heard of Israel's deliverance, visits
Moses, bringing him his wife Zipporah
and their two children, whom Moses had
left behind at home. On Jethro's advice
Moses appoints subordinate judges.
Ch. xix.-xx.: Israel's Call:
the promulgation of the Ten Commandments
on Mount Sinai. In the third month the
Israelites arrive in the desert of Sinai
and encamp at the mountain. God
announces to them through Moses that,
having by His power liberated them, He
will now constitute them His people,
making them a nation of priests and a
holy people. The Israelites accept this
call with one accord, and after they
have prepared themselves worthily, God,
through Moses' mediation, and with
thunder and lightning, clouds of smoke
and noise of trumpets, reveals Himself
to them on Mount Sinai and pronounces
the ten fundamental commands of religion
and morals, which are followed by a
command regarding the altar.
Ch. xxi.-xxiv.: The Law and the Covenant
The Ten Commandments, formally declaring
the divine will regarding man's attitude
to God and to all His creatures, are
followed by enactments relating to civil
law: (1) indemnifications for injuries
done to, a fellow man; (2) duties toward
persons who have no actual claims,
though they are dependent on the good
will of others. In conclusion there are
the promise of the land of Canaan as the
reward of obedience, and the warning
against the pagan inhabitants. God then
enters into a solemn covenant with the
people, through Moses. He calls Moses up
into the mountain to receive the stone
tablets of the Law and further
instructions.
Ch. xxv.-xxxi.: The Sanctuary and the
Priests.
In order that God may dwell permanently
among the Israelites, they are given
instructions for erecting a sanctuary.
The directions provide for: (1) a wooden
ark, gilded inside andoutside, for the
Tables of the Covenant, with a cover
similarly gilded as "mercy seat" for the
Divine Presence; (2) a gilt table for
the so-called "shewbread" (); (3) a
golden candlestick for a light never to
be extinguished; (4) the dwelling,
including the curtains for the roof, the
walls made of boards resting on silver
feet and held together by wooden bolts,
the purple curtain veiling the Holy of
Holies, the table and candlestick, and
the outer curtain; (5) a sacrificial
altar made of bronzed boards; (6) the
outer court formed by pillars resting on
bronze pedestals and connected by hooks
and crossbars of silver, with
embroidered curtains; (7) preparation of
the oil for the candlestick. Then follow
directions for the garments of the
priests: (1) a shoulder-band (ephod)
with two onyx stones, on each of which
are engraved the names of six of the
tribes of Israel, also golden chains for
holding the breastplate ("hoshen") set
with twelve precious stones, in four
rows; (2) a robe for the ephod, with
bells and pomegranates around the seam;
(3) a golden miter plate with the
inscription "Holiness to the Lord"; (4)
a coat; (5) a miter; (6) a girdle. All
these things are for Aaron. For his sons
coats, bonnets, girdles, and linen
breeches shall be made. Then follow
directions for ordaining the priests,
including robing, anointing (of Aaron),
and a seven days' sacrifice; the
institution of daily morning and evening
offerings; directions for making a
golden altar of incense, to be set up in
front of the inner curtain, opposite the
Ark of the Covenant, and on which an
atonement shall be made once a year with
the blood of the sin-offering;
directions for a yearly tax of half a
shekel to be paid by every Israelite
enumerated in the census toward the
expenses of this service; directions for
making a laver and stand of brass, to be
set up between the Tabernacle and the
altar of sacrifice; the preparation of
the holy oil for anointing and of the
holy incense; appointment of the master
workmen Bezaleel and Aboliab to direct
the work; the observance of the Sabbath.
The most striking point in this
enumeration is the place given to the
directions regarding the altar of
incense, which, to agree with the
arrangement as described in chaps.
xxxv.-xl., should follow the directions
for making the golden candlestick (xxv.
31-40). This has been a puzzle to the
critics, who have made it the basis of
the most far-reaching hypotheses. The
passage was not only supposed to be a
later interpolation, but it was assumed
that originally there was no altar of
incense, not even in Herod's temple! The
riddle may be solved as follows: In
xxxv.-xl. the articles are enumerated in
the order in which they were set up,
while here they are enumerated according
to their uses. The golden altar of
incense later stood in the Tabernacle,
between the table and the candlestick, a
fact leading to the assumption that,
like them, it belonged to the
Tabernacle. But as throughout ancient
literature the offerings of sacrifice
and incense are two independent
coordinated acts of worship, so the
altar of incense was, to all intents and
purposes, an independent requisite of
worship as important as the rest of the
apparatus. For this reason everything
that is necessary for the dwelling of
God and the sacrifices that guarantee
His presence is described first, and the
altar of incense after (comp. especially
Lev. xvi. 16-17: first, atonement for
the Holy of Holies and the "tabernacle .
. . that remaineth among them in the
midst of their uncleannesses"; then, the
cleansing and sanctifying of the altar
of incense "from the uncleannesses of
the children of Israel").
The sacrifice presumes God's presence,
while it is the object of the incense to
insure the continuation of His presence.
The things, again, that must be
repeatedly renewed are placed last,
namely, the oil for lighting; the yearly
tax; the laver with stand, consisting of
mirrors, which were taken apart again
after the laver had been used, and are,
therefore, not enumerated in Num. iv.
14; the oil for anointing; and the
incense. In conclusion, there are the
directions for the workshop, the
appointing of the master workman, and
the arrangement of the work. These
directions are admirably thought out,
down to the smallest detail.
Ch. xxxii-xxxiv.: The Sin of the People
with the Golden Calf
While Moses is on the mountain the
people become impatient and urge Aaron
to make them a golden calf, which they
worship with idolatrous joy. God informs
Moses and threatens to abandon Israel.
Moses at first intercedes for the
people, but when he comes down and
beholds their madness, he angrily breaks
the two tablets containing the divine
writing. After pronouncing judgment upon
Aaron and the people he again ascends to
God to implore forgiveness for them, as
God is about to withdraw from them His
blessed presence and to leave them
unguided in the wilderness. Moses'
intercession prevails. When he petitions
God to tell him who will accompany them,
what He intends to do, and how He will
manifest His splendor, God commands him
to make new tablets, and reveals Himself
to Moses as a God of inexhaustible love
and mercy. He assures Moses that in
spite of their way wardness He will lead
Israel into the Promised Land, giving
Moses in token thereof new commandments
applicable only to that land. He
commands the Israelites not to have
intercourse with the pagan natives, to
refrain from all idolatry, and to appear
before Him on the three pilgrimage
festivals. Moses then returns to the
people, who listen to him in respectful
silence.
Ch. xxxv.-xl.: The Sanctuary and the
Garments of the Priests
(almost in the same words as in ch.
xxv.-xxxi.). Moses collects the
congregation, enjoins upon them the
keeping of the Sabbath, and requests
gifts for the sanctuary. The entire
people, men and women, high and low,
respond willingly and quickly, and under
the direction of the superintendent they
make: (1) the dwelling, including the
curtains, the walls, and the veil; (2)
the Ark and cover; (3) the table; (4)
the golden candlestick; (5) the golden
altar of incense; (6) the altar of burnt
offerings; (7) the laver; (8) the outer
court. An estimate of the cost of the
material follows. Next comes the
preparation of the garments of the
priests, including: (1) the ephod with
the onyx stones, together with the
breastplate and its twelve precious
stones and its golden chains; (2) the
robe of the ephod; (3) the coats for
Aaron and his sons; (4) the miter and
bonnets; (5) the breeches;(6) the
girdle; (7) the golden plate of the
crown. Moses inspects the work when
completed and praises it, and the
sanctuary is set up on the first of the
second month.
In connection with this section
(xxxv.-xl.) the questions arise: Why the
lengthy repetition of ch. xxv.-xxxi, in
ch. xxxv.-xl.? and Why the difference in
the order in which the various objects
are described? To the first question the
answer is: When the people fell away and
God renounced them, the tablets of the
covenant seemed to have become useless,
wherefore Moses broke them. But after
the people had been forgiven new tablets
were made and the promises relating to
the country had to be repeated.
Furthermore, the promise given by God
that He will dwell among Israel, in a
sanctuary erected by them and in which
they will worship, must not be allowed
to remain unfulfilled; and therefore the
building of the sanctuary that had been
planned is undertaken anew, but
according to the original idea. Hence ch.
xxxii.-xxxiv. belong necessarily between
ch. xxv.-xxxi. and xxxv.-xl. To the
second question the reply is, that in
xxv.-xxxi., which contain the plan, the
pieces are enumerated according to the
uses to which they are put, while in
xxxv.-xl. (as also in the working-plans
given to the overseers in xxxi. 7 et
seq.), which narrate the progress of the
work, they are enumerated according to
their arrangement.
Religion.
Exodus contains the most fundamental
anct sublime revelations of God
regarding His nature and will, and
describes the beginnings of the
theocratic constitution of the
Israelitic people and the foundations of
its ethics, law, customs, and worship.
God, as revealed in Exodus, is not a
new, hitherto unknown God: He is the God
of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob—the
Fathers of the people—who has protected
them and has been worshiped by them (Ex.
ii. 24; iii. 6, 13-18; iv. 5; vi. 3, 8;
xv. 2; xxxii. 13). He Himself designates
the name by which He is to be addressed:
" [Yhwh], the God of your fathers, the
God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and
the God of Jacob" (iii. 15). The book,
however, expressly purposes to reveal,
or fully develop, for the first time
certain aspects of the divine nature
that have not hitherto been noted. When
God appears to Moses in the flaming
bush, and commissions him, to announce
to the Israelites their impending
liberation, Moses asks doubtingly (iii.
13): "Behold when I come unto the
children of Israel, and shall say unto
them, The God of your fathers hath sent
me unto you; and they shall say to me,
What is his name? what shall I say unto
them?" Moses seeks to know, not the name
of God, but what God's name, which he
knows is full of significance, expresses
in this particular case. Moses is well
aware that the name "Yhwh" means "the
Almighty," and that salvation rests with
God; but in his anxiety, amounting
indeed to a lack of faith, he wishes to
know at once how God will save.
Revelations of God.
God, however, will not announce that
now; merely comforting him by saying
(iii. 14) ("I will be there [helping
when necessary] in such a way as I may
deem fit"; A. V. "I AM THAT I AM"). "I
will prove myself as the Almighty, the
unfailing savior." On this passage, if
interpreted rightly, is based the
passage vi. 2, where God encourages
Moses—who is disappointed because
reference to this name has availed him
nothing—by saying "I am Yhwh! I have
revealed myself as a faithful God ["El
Shaddai"] to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
without their having known me according
to my name Yhwh." And now God works His
miracles, all with the express intention
that the people may "know that I am Yhwh"
(vi. 7; vii. 5, 17; viii. 6, 18; ix. 14,
25, 29; x. 2: xiv. 18; xvi. 12). Thus,
God is, as His name Yhwh implies, the
almighty Savior, subject only to His own
will, independent, above nature and
commanding it; the God of miracles; the
helpful God, who uses His power for
moral purposes in order to establish law
and liberty in the world, by destroying
the wicked and saving the oppressed
(iii. 8; vi. 6; vii. 5; xv. 2, 3, 11),
in whose hands are given judgment and
salvation (iii., iv., vi. 1-8).
In ch. xxxii. et seq. is revealed
another side of God's nature. Israel has
merited His destructive anger because of
its sin with the golden calf. But God
not only refrains from destruction and
from recalling His word regarding the
promised land; He even listens to Moses'
prayers to grant His presence anew to
the people. When Moses again asks, "Show
me thy glory," God answers, "I will make
all my goodness pass before thee, and I
will proclaim the name of Yhwh before
thee, and will be gracious unto whom I
will be gracious, and will show mercy
unto whom I will show mercy" (xxxiii.
18-19). And again, "Thou canst not see
my face: for man shall not see me and
live; . . . thou shalt see my back; but
my face shall not be seen" (ib. 20, 23,
R. V.). When God appears to Moses He
reveals Himself as "Yhwh, Yhwh God,
merciful and gracious, long-suffering,
and abundant in goodness and truth.
Keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving
iniquity and transgression and sin, and
that will by no means clear the guilty;
visiting the iniquity of the fathers
upon the children, and upon the
children's children, unto the third and
to the fourth generation" (xxxiv. 6-7).
In these words God has revealed Himself
as a being full of holy zeal against
wickedness—a zeal, however, which is
counteracted by the immeasurably greater
power of His love, mercy, and
forgiveness, for these are
inexhaustible. But even this does not
constitute His entire nature, which in
its full depth and clarity is beyond the
comprehension of man.
These two revelations contain the
highest and most blessed insight into
the nature of God ever attained; and
around them may be grouped the other
statements regarding God which the book
of Exodus contains.
God the Absolutely Exalted One.
God is the absolutely Exalted One, who
can not be compared with any other gods;
even the Midianite Jethro admits that
Yhwh is greater than all gods (xv. 1,
11; xviii. 11). The whole world belongs
to God: He has created heaven and earth
and all that is therein; He rules
forever; He performs marvels; nothing
like Him has ever been; hence He is an
object of veneration (xv. 11, 18; xix.
5; xx. 11; xxxiv. 10). He givesspeech to
man, or leaves him deaf and dumb; gives
him sight, or makes him blind (iv. 11).
He has power over men's hearts, either
encouraging them to do good (iii. 21,
xi. 3, xii. 36), or, having larger ends
in view, not preventing them from doing
evil ("hardening the heart," iv. 21;
vii. 3; x. 1, 20; xiv. 4, 17). God is
omniscient: He knows the distant, the
future, what man may be expected to do
according to his nature (vi. 4-13, 29;
viii. 11, 15; ix. 12, 35; xxiv. 20;
xxxiv. 10-12). From God proceed artistic
inspiration, wisdom, insight, knowledge,
and skill (xxxi. 3; xxxv. 31, 34; xxxvi.
1, 2).
God is Providence (ii. 25); He rewards
good deeds, be they done from fear of or
love for Him (i. 21, xx. 6). He is not
indifferent to human misery; He sees and
hears and intervenes at the right moment
(iii. 7; iv. 31; vi. 5; xxii. 22, 26);
He makes promises which He fulfils (ii.
24, iii. 16, iv. 31, vi. 5, xxxii. 13).
God is jealous and leaves nothing
unpunished (xx. 7, xxxiv. 7); but He
always punishes the sinner Himself,
admitting no vicarious death, even if it
is offered (xxxii. 33). His great moral
indignation ("anger") against sin would
be destructive (xxxii. 10, 33) were not
His forgiving love still greater (xx. 5,
xxxii. 14, xxxiii. 19). He is gracious
and full of mercy (xv. 13, xxxiv. 6).
His presence means grace; it sanctifies;
for He Himself "is glorious in holiness"
(xv. 11, xxix. 43).
Man can not perceive God in His entire
nature; he may only look after God when
He has passed by and imagine Him (Dillmann
to Ex. xxxiii. 22).
Yet God reveals Himself to man; i.e., He
informs man visibly and audibly of His
presence and will. God, who has already
appeared to the Fathers, appears in the
flaming bush, in the pillar of cloud and
of fire on the march, in the clouds in
which He came down on Sinai, in the fire
on the mountain, in the cloud in the
desert, in the pillar of cloud on Moses'
tent, in the cloud from which He calls
out to Moses His attributes of grace, in
the cloud and the fire that serve as
signals to the Israelites to start or to
encamp (vi. 3; xiii. 21; xiv. 19; xix.
11; xx.; xxiv. 15, 17; xxxiii. 9; xxxiv.
5; xl. 34-36). This divine appearance is
called God's message (xiv. 19; xxiii.
20, 23; xxxii. 34; xxxiii. 2) or His
glory (xvi. 7, 10; xxiv. 16-17; xxxiii.
22; xl. 34).
God appears in order to make Himself
known, to give commands, and to impart
reverence leading to obedience (xvi. 10,
xix. 9, xx. 20). God speaks chiefly with
Moses; He puts the words in Moses'
mouth, and tells him what to say; He
talks with him face to face, as a man
with his neighbor, and gives him a staff
as a token of his office (iii. 15; iv.
17; vii. 2, 17, 20; ix. 23; x. 13;
xxxiii. 11). But God also speaks from
heaven to the entire people (xx. 22),
and orders for Himself a permanent
dwelling-place among them in the
tabernacle set up according to His
directions (xx. 22, xxv. 8, xxix. 45);
He descends thither in order to talk
with Moses, His especial place being the
cover of the Ark of the Covenant,
between the two cherubim (xxv. 22, xxix.
43, xxx. 6).
Israel.
God has made a covenant with the Fathers
of the people, Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob, that He will multiply them as the
stars of heaven; that He will remember
them, save them, and give to them and
their descendants the land of Canaan—a
land "flowing with milk and honey," and
that, shall reach "from the Red Sea even
unto the sea of the Philistines, and
from the desert unto the river" (ii. 24;
iii. 8, 17; vi. 4-8; xiii. 5; xxiii. 31;
xxxii. 13; xxxiii. 3). God remembers
this covenant and keeps it despite
everything, as is exemplified in the
deliverance of Israel and the
destruction of Pharaoh (i. 7, 12; iii.
7; vi. 1; xxiii. 20); He does not forget
it, in spite of the dejection and the
murmurings of the people (vi. 9; xiv.
10; xv. 24; xvi. 2, 27; xvii. 3), their
worship of the golden calf and their
obstinacy (xxxii. 9; xxxiii. 3, 5;
xxxiv. 9). He leads, fights for, heals,
and educates Israel and destroys
Israel's enemies (xiii. 17; xiv. 14, 25;
xv. 3, 26; xvi. 4; xx. 20; xxiii. 22,
23, 27; xxxiii. 2, xxxiv. 11, 24). The
Israelites are God's people, His host,
His first-born son (vi. 7, vii. 4, xii.
41, xv. 16, xxxii. 11 et seq.; xxxiii.
13, 16). Yhwh will be Israel's God (vi.
7, xxix. 5). Israel is His property ("segullah").
Above all people Israel shall be His
people, "a kingdom of priests, and a
holy nation," if Israel will listen to
God's voice and keep His covenant (xix.
5, 6). Therefore He gives to the
Israelites commandments, descends to
them in His glory, holds them worthy of
renewed revelations, and orders divine
service (xxiv. 8, xxxiv. 27).
The Moral Law.
In Exodus are found for the first time
the preeminent characteristics of the
Israelitic law: its origin in and
pragmatic connection with history. An
account is given of the laws in
connection with the events that called
them forth. Thus, on the one hand,
history explains and justifies the Law,
while on the other the Law keeps alive
and commemorates the events and
teachings of history. As furthermore God
is the subject of history as well as the
lawgiver, Israel's religion assumes here
the fundamental characteristic that
determines its entire future
development: it is a law founded on God
as revealed in history. The basis is the
Decalogue, the Ten Commandments (Ex. xx.
1-17), in which all duties are
designated as duties toward the God who
liberated Israel from the slavery of
Egypt. Israel must not recognize any
other God; idolatry and the making and
worshiping of images are forbidden (xx.
2-5, 23; xxiii. 13, 24, 33; xxxii.;
xxxiv. 12-14, 17); Israel shall beware
of seductive intercourse with the
idolatrous Canaanites; sacrificing to
idols, and magic, are punishable by
death. Nor may the name of the true God
be applied to vain idols (this is the
only correct explanation of xx. 7). God
is recognized as Creator of the world by
the sanctification of the Sabbath, on
which man and beast shall rest from all
labors (xvi. 23 et seq., xx. 7 et seq.,
xxiii. 12, xxxi. 12-17, xxxv. 1-3), and
also by the observance of the Sabbatical
year (xxiii. 10). He is recognized as
Israel's savior from Egyptian oppression
by the celebration of the Passover (see
below).
"Honor thy father and thy mother: that
thy days may be long upon the land which
the Lord thy God giveth thee" (xx. 12,
fifth commandment). He who strikes or
insults his father or mother is punished
by death (xxi. 15, 17). Honor must also
be accorded to those in authority (xxii.
27 [A. V. 28])."Thou shalt not kill"
(xx. 13). Murder is punishable by death
(xxi. 12); there is no place of refuge
for the murderer, as there is for the
accidental homicide, even at the altar
(xxi. 13-14). For bodily injuries there
is a fine (xxi. 18-19, 22-25, 28-31).
"Thou shalt not commit adultery" (xx.
14). Lechery and intercourse with
animals are punishable by death (xxii.
17); the seducer of a virgin must either
marry her or compensate her father
(xxii. 15 et seq.). "Thou shalt not
steal" (xx. 15). Kidnaping is punishable
by death (xxi. 16). Killing of a burglar
is justifiable. Whoever steals cattle,
slaughtering and selling it, has to pay
four or five times its value; if it is
found alive, double; if the thief is
unable to pay he is sold into slavery
(xxi. 37, xxii. 3). Property injured or
destroyed must be made good (xxi. 33-36,
xxii. 4-14).
"Thou shalt not bear false witness
against thy neighbor" (xx. 16). Justice,
veracity, impartiality, honesty in
court, are enjoined (xxiii. 1, 2, 6-8).
An oath is demanded where there is
suspicion of a default (xxii. 7 et
seq.).
"Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's
house, thou shalt not covet thy
neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor
his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his
ass, nor anything that is thy neighbor's
(xx. 17).
The duties to one's neighbor include
both kindly deeds and kindly thoughts.
The poor man must be cared for: justice
shall be done to him; loans shall be
made to him; and he shall not be pressed
for payment, nor shall the necessaries
of life be taken in pawn (xxii. 24 et
seq.). Widows and orphans shall not be
oppressed; for God is their advocate
(xxii. 21). Strangers shall not be
injured or oppressed; "for ye were
strangers in the land of Egypt" (xxii.
20, xxiii. 9); they also shall rest on
the Sabbath (xx. 10). A Hebrew
bond-servant shall not serve longer than
six years, unless he himself chooses to
remain. He may not earn any wages for
himself while serving. The master of a
girl that has been sold into servitude
shall marry her or give her a dower.
Servants are to be set free on receiving
bodily injuries; and death caused by an
animal is requited (xxi. 1-11, 20, 21,
26, 27, 32). Servants also shall rest on
the Sabbath (xx. 10, xxiii. 12). Animals
shall be treated gently (xxiii. 4, 5,
19), and be allowed to rest on the
Sabbath (xx. 10; xxiii. 12).
Consideration for an enemy is enjoined
(xxiii. 4, 5). To do these commandments
is to obey God (xv. 26, xvi. 28, xx. 6,
xxiii, 13). Israel shall trust in Him
(iii.-vi., xiv. 31, xvi., xvii. 7, xix.
9); and in a significant passage (xx. 6)
the love for God is accentuated.
Cult.
In Exodus the beginnings of the national
cult are seen. It is strictly forbidden
to make or worship idols (xx. 3, 23;
xxiii. 24; xxxii.; xxxiv. 13, 17). The
symbol of the Divine Presence is the
Tabernacle built according to God's
directions, more especially the cover of
the Ark of the Covenant and the space
between the cherubim thereon (see
Tabernacle). Worship by specially
sanctified priests shall be observed in
this sanctuary (see Leviticus). The
festivals include the Sabbath, for which
no ritual is mentioned, and three
"pilgrimage festivals," at which all
males are to appear before God (xxiii.
14-17, xxxiv. 18-23).
The Passover is discussed in detail, a
large part of the book being devoted to
its institution (xii. 1-28, 43-50; xiii.
1-16; xxiii. 15; xxxiv. 18-20); and its
historical origin is to be brought home
to all future generations (xii. 2, 14,
17, 24-27, 42; xiii. 5-10, 16; see
Mazzah; PesaH.; Seder). Toward evening
of the 14th day of the first month a
yearling male lamb or kid without
blemish shall be slaughtered, roasted by
the fire, and eaten at the family
dinner, together with unleavened bread
and bitter herbs. It must be roasted
whole, with the legs and entrails, and
no bones must be broken; none of the
meat must be carried from the house, but
whatever remains until morning must be
burned. In connection with this there is
a seven days' festival (), the Feast of
Mazzot (unleavened bread). This bread
shall be eaten for seven days, from the
14th to the 21st of the first month (the
month of Abib, in which Israel went out
from Egypt; xxiii. 15, xxxiv. 18). It is
strictly forbidden to partake of
anything leavened; it must be removed
from the house on the first day. The
first and the seventh day are strictly
days of rest, on which only necessary
food may be prepared. The sanctification
of the firstlings that belong to God is
also connected with the Passover. The
first-born child, and that of the ass,
which can not be sacrificed, must be
redeemed by a lamb (xiii. 1 et seq.,
xxii. 28, xxxiv. 19 et seq.). Other
festivals are (1) the cutting of the
first-fruits of the harvest ("H.ag ha-kazir")
or the Feast of Weeks ("Hag Shabu'ot"),
and (2) the harvest-home ("H.ag ha-Asif")
at the end of the year, after the
harvest has been gathered in (xxiii. 16,
xxxiv. 22). At these festivals the
people must not appear empty-handed
before God; they must not mix the blood
of the Passover sacrifice with leavened
bread, nor leave the sacrifice until the
morning; they must take the firstlings
of the field into the house of God, and
must not seethe the kid in its mother's
milk (xxiii. 18, 19; xxxiv. 25, 26). The
tithes from the barn and the vineyard
must not be delayed. Animals torn in the
field ("terefah") must not be eaten,
but must be thrown to the dogs, for "ye
shall be holy men" (xxii. 28-30; A. V.
29-31).E. G. H. B. J.
—Critical View I.:
The Book of Exodus, like the other books
of the Hexateuch, is of composite
origin, being compiled of documents
originally distinct, which have been
excerpted and combined by a redactor
(see Pentateuch). The two main sources
used in Exodus are the one now generally
known as "JE," the chief component parts
of which date probably from the seventh
or eighth century B.C., and the one
denoted by "P," which is generally
considered to have been written during
or shortly after the Babylonian
captivity. The former of these sources
is in tone and character akin to the
writings of the great prophets; the
latter is evidently the work of a
priest, whose chief interest it was to
trace to their origin, and describe with
all needful particularity, the
ceremonial institutions of his people.
It is impossible, within the limits of
the present article, to state the
details of the analysis, at least in
what relates to the line of demarcation
between J and E, or to discuss the
difficult problems which arise in
connection with the account of the
legislation contained in JE (xix.-xxiv.
and xxxii.-xxxiv.); but the broad and
important line of demarcation between P
and JE may be indicated, and the leading
characteristics of the principal sources
may be briefly outlined.
The parts of Exodus which belong to P
are: i. 1-5, 7, 13-14, ii. 23b-25 (the
oppression); vi. 2-vii. 13 (commission
of Moses, with genealogy, vi. 14-27);
vii. 19-20a, 21b-22, viii. 1-3, 11b-15 (A.V.
5-7, 15b-19), ix. 8-12, xi. 9-10 (the
plagues); xii. 1-20, 28, 37a, 40, 41,
43-51, xiii. 1-2, 20 (Passover, mazzot,
dedication of first-born); xiv. 1-4,
8-9, 15-18, 21a, c, 22-23, 26-27a,
28a-29 (passage of Red Sea); xvi. 1-3,
6-24, 31-36 (the manna); xvii. 1a, xix.
1-2a (journey to Sinai); xxiv. 15-18a,
xxv. 1-xxxi. 18a (instructions
respecting the Tabernacle); xxxiv.
29-35, xxxv.-xl. (the construction and
erection of the Tabernacle). The rest of
the book consists of J and E, which
(before they were combined with P) were
united into a whole by a redactor, and
at the same time, it seems, expanded in
parts (especially in the legal portions)
by hortatory or didactic additions,
approximating in style to Deuteronomy.
Characteristics of JE.
In JE's narrative, particularly in the
parts belonging to J, the style is
graphic and picturesque, the
descriptions are vivid and abound in
detail and colloquy, and both emotion
and religious feeling are warmly and
sympathetically expressed. As between J
and E, there are sometimes differences
in the representation. In the account of
the plagues, for instance, the
Israelites are represented by J as
living apart in Goshen (viii. 18 [A. V.
22], ix. 26; compare Gen. xlv. 10, xlvi.
28, etc.; also J); and the plagues are
sent by Yhwh at a specified time
announced beforehand to Pharaoh by
Moses. In E the Israelites are
represented, not as occupying a district
apart, but as living side by side with
the Egyptians (iii. 22, xi. 2, xii. 85
et seq.); and the plague is brought to
pass on the spot by Moses with his rod
(vii. 20b; ix. 23; x. 12, 13a; compare
iv. 2, 17, 20b; xvii, 5; also E) or his
hand (x. 22). An interesting chapter
belonging to E is xviii., which presents
a picture of Moses legislating. Disputes
arise among the people; they are brought
before Moses for settlement; and his
decisions are termed "the statutes and
directions ["torot"] of God." It was the
office of the priests afterward to give
direction () upon cases submitted to
them, in matters both of civil right
(Deut. xvii. 17) and of ceremonial
observance (ib. xxiv. 8; Hag. ii.
11-13); and it is difficult not to think
that in Exodus xviii. there is a genuine
historical tradition of the manner in
which the nucleus of Hebrew law was
created by Moses himself.
JE's account of the Sinaitic legislation
is contained in xix. 3-xxiv. 14, 18b;
xxxi. 18b-xxxiv. 28. This narrative,
when examined attentively, discloses
manifest marks of composite structure.
The greater part of it belongs tolerably
clearly to E, viz.: xix. 3-19;
xx.-xxiii. 33 (expanded in parts by the
compiler); xxiv. 3-8, 12-14, 18b; xxxi.
18b; xxxii. 1-8 (9-14, probably
compiler), 15-35; xxxiii. 5-11. To J
belong xix. 20-25, xxiv. 1-2, 9-11
(fragments of an account of the
theophany on Sinai); and xxxiii. 1-4,
xxxiii. 12-xxxiv. 28 appear also to be
based upon J, but amplified by the
compiler. A particularly noticeable
passage in E's narrative is xxxiii.
7-11, which preserves the oldest
representation of the "Tent of Meeting";
it was outside the camp (compare Num.
xi. 16, 17, 24-30; xii. 4; also E; and
contrast the representation of P in Num.
ii. et seq.); the youthful Joshua was
its keeper; and Moses from time to time
repaired to it for the purpose of
communing with Yhwh. Evidently the Tent
of Meeting, as pictured by E, was a much
simpler structure than it is in the
representation of P (xxvi.-xxxi., etc.),
just as the altar (xx. 24-26), feasts,
etc. (xxiii. 10-19), presented by E,
reflect the usage of a simpler, more
primitive age than do the corresponding
regulations in P.
The laws of JE are contained in xii. 21
27 (Passover); xiii. 3-16 (mazzot and
consecration of first-born); xx. 1-17
(the Decalogue); xx. 22-xxiii. 33 (the
"Book of the Covenant"; see xxiv. 7);
and the repetition (with slight verbal
differences, and the addition in xxxiv.
12-17 of more specific warnings against
idolatry) of xiii. 12-13, and of the
theocratic section of the Book of the
Covenant (xxiii. 10-19) in xxxiv. 10-26
(sometimes called the "Little Book of
the Covenant"). The Decalogue and the
Book of the Covenant both belong in
particular to E.
These laws have in many places had
parenetic additions made to them by the
compiler (e.g., much of xiii. 3-16; the
explanatory comments in xx. 4-6, 9-11,
12b, 17; xxii. 21b, 22; xxiii. 23-25a).
The laws in xxxiv. 10-26 are introduced
ostensibly as embodying the conditions
for the renewal of the Covenant after it
had been broken by the sin of the golden
calf; but it is generally supposed that
originally they formed a separate
collection, which was introduced
independently, in slightly different
recensions, into E in xxiii. 10-19, and
into J here, and which probably, when J
was complete, stood as part of J's
direct sequel to xxiv. 1-2, 9-11.
Further, although by the author of
xxxiv. 1-28 in its present form (see
verse 1b), the "ten commandments" (Hebr.
"ten words") of verse 28b are evidently
intended to be the Decalogue of xx.
1-17, yet the natural subject of "And he
wrote" in verse 28 is "Moses" (compare
verse 27); hence it is also inferred by
many critics that, in the original
context of verse 28, the "ten words"
were the preceding group of laws (verses
10-26), which, though now expanded by
the compiler, would in that case have
comprised originally ten particular
injunctions (the "ritual Decalogue" of
J, as opposed to the "moral Decalogue"
of E in xx. 1-17). Whatever the true
explanation of the double appearance of
this little group of laws may be, it is
in any case the earliest existing
formulation of what were regarded at the
time as the essential ritual observances
of the religion of Yhwh.
Characteristics of P.
The literary and other characteristics
of P are, mutatis mutandis, the same in
Exodus as in other parts of the
Hexateuch. The same or similar
stereotyped formulas appear; and (as a
reference to the synopsis above will
show) there is the same disposition to
reduce the account of ordinary events to
a bare summary, but to enlarge upon
everything connected with ceremonial
institutions. In i.-xi. the narrative of
P runs parallel to that of JE; and the
compiler has sometimes preserved
divergent versions of the same events.
Thus, if vi. 2-vii. 13 be compared
carefully with iii. 1-vi. 1, it will be
seen not to describe the sequel of it,
but to contain a parallel and partly
divergent account of the commission of
Moses and of the preliminary steps taken
by him to secure the release of the
people. In the narrative of the plagues
there aresystematic differences between
P and JE: thus in P Aaron cooperates
with Moses; no demand for Israel's
release is ever made upon Pharaoh, the
plagues being viewed rather merely as
signs or proofs of power; the
description is brief; the success or
failure of the Egyptian magicians (who
are mentioned only in this narrative) is
noted, and the hardening of Pharaoh's
heart is expressed by the verb "hazak.,"
"hizzak." (this verb is used also by E;
but J has regularly "kabed," "hikbid"),
In xii.-xiii. the double strand is
particularly evident: Passover, mazzot,
narrative, and the dedication of the
first-born are all in duplicate (in P,
xii. 1-13 [43-50 supplementary], 14-20,
28, 37a, 40-41, 51; xiii. 1-2: in JE,
xii, 21-27 (which careful comparison
will show to be not really the sequel of
xii. 1-13), 29-36, 37b-39, 42a; xiii.
3-10, 11-16).
The most characteristic part of P is,
however, the account of the instructions
given to Moses on the Mount (xxiv.
15-18a) for the construction of the
Tabernacle and the appointment of a
priesthood (xxv.-xxxi.). These
instructions fall into two parts: (1)
xxv.-xxix.; (2) xxx.-xxxi. In xxv.-xxix.
the following subjects are dealt with:
the Ark, table of show-bread, and
candlestick (xxv.); the Tabernacle ("mishkan"),
its curtains, boards, and veil (xxvi.);
the altar of burnt offering, and the
court (xxvii.); the dress of the priests
(xxviii.); the ritual for their
consecration, and for the daily burnt
offering, which it is a primary duty of
the priesthood to maintain (xxix. 1-42);
and finally what is apparently the
formal close of the entire body of
instructions, Yhwh's promise to take up
His abode in the sanctuary thus
established (xxix. 43-46). Chapters
xxx.-xxxi. contain directions respecting
the altar of incense, the maintenance of
public worship, the brazen laver, the
anointing-oil, the incense (xxx.); the
nomination of Bezaleel and Aholiab, and
the observance of the Sabbath (xxxi.).
While now it is not doubted that
xxv.-xxix., with unimportant exceptions,
form part of the original legislation of
P, it is generally held by critics that
xxx.-xxxi. belong to a secondary and
posterior stratum of it, reflecting a
later stage of ceremonial usage. The
chief reason for this conclusion is the
manner in which the altar of incense is
introduced (xxxi. 1-10). If such an
altar had been contemplated by the
author of xxv.-xxix., he must, it is
argued, have introduced it in xxv.,
together with the other furniture of the
Holy Place, and also mentioned it in
xxvi. 33-35; moreover, he would
naturally, in such a case, have
distinguished the altar described in
xxvii. 1-8 from the altar of incense,
and not have spoken of it simply as the
altar.
This conclusion respecting the secondary
character of the altar of incense
appears to be confirmed by the fact that
in the other laws of P there is a
stratum in which such an altar is not
recognized (for instance, Lev, xvi.).
There are also other indications tending
to show that xxx.-xxxi. belong to a
posterior stratum of P, as compared with
xxv.-xxix. Chapters xxxv-xl. describe,
largely in the same words as xxv.-xxxi.
(the tenses alone being altered), but
with several differences of order, how
the instructions given there to Moses
were carried out. In these chapters the
altar of incense and the brazen laver
(xxx. 17-21) are introduced in the
places which they would naturally be
expected to occupy, namely, in the
descriptions of the Holy Place and the
court respectively (xxxvii. 25-28,
xxxviii. 8). It follows that if
xxx.-xxxi. belong to a secondary stratum
of P, the same must be true of xxxv.-xl.
The later origin of xxxv.-xl. seems to
be further supported by the fact that
the Septuagint version of these chapters
is not by the same hand as the rest of
the book; so that presumably they were
not in the manuscript used by the
original translators. The chapters, if
this view is correct, have taken the
place of a much briefer account of the
manner in which the construction of the
Tabernacle was carried out.
P's Representation of the Tabernacle
Unhistorical.
P's representation of the Tabernacle and
its appointments can not be historical.
The lsraelites in the wilderness had
undoubtedly an "ohel mo'ed"; but it was
the simple "ohel mo'ed" of E (Ex.
xxxiii. 7-11; Num. xi., xii.), not the
costly and elaborate structure described
by P. P's representation is the
embodiment of an ideal; it is a "product
of religious idealism," constructing for
the Mosaic age, upon the basis of
traditions or reminiscences of the
Temple of Solomon, a shrine such as
might be adequate to Yhwh's majesty, and
worthily symbolize His presence in the
midst of His people (compare Ottley,
"Aspects of the O. T." p. 226).
Bibliography: The introductions to the
O. T. by Kuenen, Driver, Holzinger,
König, Cornill, Baudissin;
the commentaries of Dillmann, Baentsch
(1900), Holzinger (1900), and A. R. S.
Kennedy (forthcoming);
C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of
the Hexateuch, 1897;
Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The
Hexateuch, Oxford, 1900, especially ii.
79-143 (text of Exodus, with the sources
distinguished typographically, and full
critical notes);
G. F. Moore, Exodus, in Cheyne and
Black, Encyc. Bibl. ii. (where further
literature is referred to).E. G. H. S.
R. D.
—Critical View II.:
The critical problems and hypotheses
that Exodus shares with the other books,
such as the historical value of the
accounts; authorship; relation to the
later books; age, origin, and character
of the alleged sources, can not be
discussed here now; the analysis of
sources of Exodus can alone be treated.
According to the critics of the
Pentateuch, Exodus, like all the other
books of the Torah, possesses no unity,
having been compiled from different
sources at different times, the various
parts being then revised finally by one
redactor (R); the same sources as those
for Genesis furnish the material,
namely, J (Jahvist), E (Elohist), and P
(Priestly Code), in which again several
strata must be distinguished, as P2, P3,
P4, J1, J2, E1, E2, etc. It is not
necessary to refer to all the
suggestions that have been made; the
analyses of sources by Kuenen and
Cornill are chiefly treated here (Kuenen:
Introduction; § 5; § 6, 2-15; § 8,
10-13; § 13, 12 et seq.; § 16, 12;
Cornill: Introduction; § 7; § 11, 4; §
12; § 13, 2, 8; § 14, 1, 2, 3.
To P2 is assigned, according to Kuenen:
i. 1-7, 13, 14; ii. 23-25; vi. 2-12
(13-28 interrupt the course of the story
and are by a later reviser; they are,
according to Wellhausen, unskilfully
inserted and amplified); vii. 1-13, 19,
20a (21c ?), 22; viii. 1-3, 11b, 12-15;
ix. 8-12 (35 ?); xi. 9-10; xii. 1-20,
28, 40revision , 41revision, 43-51
(xiii. 20 ?); xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 10 (inpart),
15-18, 21 (in part), 22, 23, 26, 27 (in
part), 28, 29; xvi. ("this chapter has
been subsequently revised and
completed") (xvii. 1; xix. 2a ?); xxiv.
15-18a; xxv.-xxix. "follow in natural
and regular order, and may have been
arranged in this way by the author
himself," but (§ 16, 12) contain many
interpolations by R.
Ch. xxx., xxxi. 1-17, in which "the
connection is looser, or is wanting
altogether; and in which there are
contained regulations that do not
harmonize with what has preceded, and
that are not presupposed later where
they would naturally be mentioned . . .
probably contain later additions,
harmonizing in style with xxiv.-xxix.,
but not composed by the same author." To
P4 are assigned ch. xxxv.-xl. (and also
Lev. viii.), which "depend entirely on
xxv.-xxxi., which the author must have
had before him." They formed "originally
a very brief account of the observance
of the regulations laid down in xxv. et
seq.; they seem to have been gradually
worked out, and then made as similar to
those regulations as possible. The
striking variations found in the Greek
translation of xxxv.-xl. lead to the
assumption that the final redaction of
these chapters was hardly completed—if
indeed it was completed—when that
translation was made, i.e., about 250
B.C." This entire theory regarding
xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl. is based on
Popper's work, which the other critics
also follow.
Cornill, who includes the later parts of
P2 under the general designation Px,
assigns to the Priestly Code the
following portions: i. 1-5, 7revision ,
13, 14 revision ; ii. 23revision, 24-25;
vi. essentially (13-30 = Px): vii. 1-13,
19, 20a revision, 21b-22; viii. 1-3,
11a, b-15; ix. 8-12; xi. 9-10; xii.
1-20, 28, 37 revision, 40-41, 43-51
(15-20 and 43-50 = Px); xiii. 1-2; xiv.
1-4, 8, 9b, 10a, b, 15 revision, 16-18,
21-23essentially, 26-28aa, 28 revision,
29; xvi. 1-3, 6-7, 9-18 revision, 20,
22a, b-24, 32-35a; xvii. 1a; xix. 1
revision, 2a; xxiv. 15-18aa; xxv.
1-xxxi. 18a (xxviii. 41 belongs surely
to Px, as do perhaps also other shorter
additions to xxv.-xxix.; and xxx.-xxxi.
entire); xxxiv. 29-35 (?); xxxv.-xl.
(entirely Px).
It is much more difficult in what
remains to distinguish between the
closely related J and E. Passages
relatively complete in themselves are:
(1) ch. xxi.-xxiii., the so-called "Book
of the Covenant"; it belongs to E,
though dating from an earlier time, and
was found by him and incorporated in his
work; (2) the story of the golden calf
(xxxii.-xxxiv.), J and E sharing about
equally in the account; (3) the
Decalogue and the preparations for it
(xix., xx.), chiefly E, but J also has a
Decalogue tradition, its Ten
Commandments being found in xxxiv. 14-26
(Wellhausen). E1, originally composed in
the Northern Kingdom, must be
distinguished from E2; the latter was
compiled about 100 years later for
Judah, and was worked over with J to
form JE, many passages of which can no
longer be analyzed.
E: Kuenen: Traces of E are found in i.
(15-21, and apparently also 8-12, "is
generally included in E"); in ii. "there
is great difference of opinion" on the
origin of verses 1-23 (according to
Jülicher verses 1-22 are taken from E;
according to Dillmann 1-14 from E and
15-23a from J. Wellhausen takes the
story on the whole to be a combination
from J and E.) This document appears
especially clear, though not without
admixture, in iii. 1-15, a section that,
as complement to vi. 2 et seq. (P), also
explains the use of "Elohim" in the
account of the pre-Mosaic time taken
from E. In the following "the traces are
only with difficulty distinguished: in
iii. 16-xii. only here and there with
any certainty." (Dillmann includes in E:
the greater part of iii. 16-22; iv. 17,
20b, 18, 21; the greater part of v.;
vii. 15, 16, 17b, 20b, 21a, 23 in part,
24; viii. 16a, 21-24a, 25b; ix. 22, 23a,
24a, 25b (?), 31, 32, 35; x. 8-13a, 14
in part, 15 in part, 20, 21-27; xi. 1-3;
xii. 31-33, 37b, 38. Jülicher includes:
iv. 17, 18, 20b: v. 1, 2, 5; vii. 17 in
part, 18, 20 in part, and 21, 24, 25a;
viii. 21b, 22, 23; ix. 22, 23a, 24 and
28 in part, 35; x. 7, 8-11, 12, 13a,
14a, 15a, 20, 21-27, 28, 29; xi. 1-7;
xii. 32, 35-38.) E is found again in:
xiii. 17-19, 21, 22; xiv. 19a (19b ?);
xv. 22-26; xvii. 1b-7, 8-16; xviii. Also
xix. 9a, 10-17; xx. 18-21, 1-17 (in this
order); this—the so-called "first"—the
Decalogue, with the historical matter
connected with it in xix.-xxiv., belongs
to E2. From the Book of the Covenant
xxiv. 1, 2, 9-14, 18a, and various other
passages, belong to E, as does also the
story of Israel's apostasy at Sinai,
which appears enlarged and connected
with other stories in xxxii.-xxxiv.,
belonging originally to E2.
Cornill: i. 11-12, 15-22 essentially;
ii. 1-10 essentially; iii.
1-15essentially, 21-22; iv. 17, 18, 20b;
vii. 15b, 17b-18, 20b-21a, 24; ix.
22-23a, 24brevision, 25b, 31-32, 35; x.
12-13aa, 14aa, b, 15b, 20-23, 25 (?);
xi. 1-3; xii. 35-36, 37revision; xiii.
17-19; xiv. 7-9a,?, 10a, ?, 19a, 20 (?);
xv. 20-26essentially; xvii-xxiv.
essentially; xxxi. 18b; xxxii.
essentially; xxxiii. 1-11revision;
xxxiv. 1a,4 revision, 28b revision (?).
In xix.-xxxiv. only xix. 13b (perhaps);
xxiv. 1-2, 9-11; and xxxiii. 7-10 belong
to E1.
J, according to Kuenen, is represented
in i.-xv. by accounts parallel with
those of E, but which can not now be
distinguished; "but it is doubtful
whether J contributed anything to the
account of the laws promulgated at Mount
Sinai and of the defection of Israel,
xix.-xxiv. and xxxii.-xxxiv." (Wellhausen
finds J in: xix. 20-25; xx. 23-26;
xxi.-xxiii.; xxiv. 3-8; Dillmann, in:
xix. 9a, 20-25 [xx. 1-17, perhaps under
a different form]; xxiv. 1, 2; xxxiv.
10-27; fragments in xxiv. 3-8, 9-11, 12
in part, 18b; xxxii. 1-14, 19b-24,
30-34; also in xxxiii. 1-6, 12, 13,
18-23; xxxiii. 14-17; xxxiv. 1-9.)
Cornill: i. 6, 7a,b, 8-10, 14a,?, 20b,
22 (?); ii. 11-23aa; iii. 16-20; iv.
1-12, 19, 20a, 24-26, 29revision,
30revision, 31; v. essentially; vi. 1;
vii. 14-15a, 16-17a, 23, 25, 29; viii.
4revision, 5-7, 8revision, 9-11aa,
16-20, 21 revision, 22-28; ix. 1-7,
13-21, 23b, 24 revision, 25a, 26, 27
revision, 28-30, 33; x. essentially; xi.
4-8; xii. 21-27essentially,
29-39essentially, 42a; xiii.
3-16essentially, 21-22; xiv. 5-6, 9aa,
10ba, 11-14, 19b, 21a,?, 24-25, 27
revision, 28b, 30-31; xvi. 4-5, 16a,?,
18b, 21-22aa; 25-31essentially, 35b;
xvii. 1a,b, 2, 7; xix. 2b, 7, 9-11, 18,
20-21, 22b, 25a; xxxiii.
12-23essentially (?); xxxiv. 1a
revision, 2-3, 4 revision, 5, 6a, 8,
10-28essentially.
Redaction.
Editions (according to Cornill): In the
first place J and E were combined into
one book (JE) by one redactor (RJE). He
greatly revised iii., and may have added
the marching song xv. 1-19 ("it is
entirely improbable that it was composed
at the time the event itself took
place"). He also did much editing of the
pericope dealing with the legislation
(xix.-xxxiv.). He used E2 throughout as
foundation, supplementing it with J; he
omitted entirely the second Decalogue in
J, incorporating what he thought
valuable in the Book of the Covenant,
xxiii. 15-19, and reduced
xxxii.-xxxiii., on the whole, to its
present form. A second redactor then
combined (the later) Deuteronomy with JE
( = JE + D). He added iv. 21-23; in the
story of the Egyptian plagues (x. 2)
"there is at least a Deuteronomistic,
touch"; he also added viii. 18b and ix.
29b, and probably revised ix. 14-16. He
greatly revised xii. 21-27, xiii. 3-16,
xv. 26, xvi., and xviii. 20b. He
transferred, according to Kuenen, the
Book of the Covenant to Mount Sinai in
order to get room for Deuteronomy, being
responsible, therefore, for all the
confusion caused thereby—for example,
the transferring of xx. 18-21 from its
original position before, to its present
position after, xx. 1-17; the transition
to the Book of the Covenant as found in
xx. 22, 23; and the peculiar form of
xxiv. 1-15a. Ch. xix. 3b-8 is also
specifically Deuteronomic, as well as
the revisions of the Book of the
Covenant with the final admonitions in
xxiii. 22b-25a, 27, 31b-33, and the
revision of the second Decalogue, which
RJE transferred to the Book of the
Covenant.
A third redactor, who combined JED with
P, thus practically producing the
Pentateuch (RP), added iv. 13-16 and
27-28, revised 29-30, and in v.-x. added
everywhere the name of Aaron (which was
not includedat all originally!). He or
Px (see ante) added vi. 13-30. It is
more difficult to ascertain the method
of his revision of xii. 40-42. To xvi.
he transferred (in consideration of JE)
a passage by P on the manna, which
originally was placed after the
revelation on Sinai (the reason assigned
for this assumption on the part of the
critics is that verse 34 presupposes the
Tabernacle; but this verse is as much
merely an anticipatory comment as is
35). He added to xvii. the fragment of
the Jahvistic miraculous story of the
spring in order to make room for P in
Num. xx. He added finally the repeated
phrase "the tables of testimony," xxxi.
18, xxxiv. 29, and in xxxiii. he omitted
the Elohistic account of the making of
the Ark of the Covenant. It is often
doubtful whether a revision was made by
RP or by P3, 4, 5—RP is himself a
priestly redactor.
Errors of Critical School.
All these and similar analyses of the
sources of Exodus and the conclusions
based thereon are entirely wrong.
However rich and many-sided may have
been the traditions from which the
author drew his material, the book from
beginning to end is composed and
arranged according to a predetermined
plan. The fundamental errors of the
critical views are these: (1) The
distinction made between J and E is
erroneous, resting as it does on the
varying use of the divine names "Yhwh"
and "Elohim"; this use does not indicate
a difference in authorship, but is due
to the different meanings of the two
names, the choice of which is carefully
considered in each case. The statement
that E uses in iii. 15 the name "Yhwh"
for the first time, is due to a wrong
interpretation; it is based on the
Alexandrian-Essenic-Christian-Gnostic
common superstition of the power of
names and mere words, which, going back
to Egyptian antiquity, is strongly
marked in the New Testament—and hence
naturally influences modern scholars—but
is entirely foreign to the Old
Testament. The verses vi. 2 et seq. are
likewise interpreted wrongly. (2) An
entirely insufficient argument is the
alleged further variations of the
language; for this presupposes the point
to be proved. This argument turns in a
circle: the critics seek to prove
different sources by the variations of
language, and vice versa. Moreover, the
vocabulary is too limited for such
assertions. (3) The differences of style
and treatment do not indicate different
authors, but are called forth by the
different subjects. The account of the
Tabernacle demanded technical details;
while the stories of the deliverance
from Egypt and of the revelation on
Sinai prompted a strong, energetic, and
thoughtful style. A separation into JE
and P is not admissible. (4) All
suggestions of reduplications,
differences, and contradictions show an
insufficient insight into the spirit and
intentions of the author. Ch. i.-vi.,
for example, appear, on close
investigation, to be an indissolubly
united passage, from which not one word
may be omitted. The same holds good of
the story of the Egyptian miracles
(vii.-xi.), the arrangement of which the
critics have entirely misunderstood. The
critics have refuted their own argument
by making as a criterion of the division
of this narrative into J and E the very
want of definite scheme which is,
according to them, characteristic of J
and E.
The Book of the Covenant (xix.-xxiv.) is
a unified piece of work, with logical
connections that are admirably
established. The alleged double
tradition of the revelation, and
especially Wellhausen's so-called second
Decalogue in ch. xxxiv., are mere
figments of the brain. The inadequacy of
these criticisms is most striking in the
review of the account of the Tabernacle,
in the sequence of the passages
xxv.-xxxi. and xxxv.-xl. and their
connection with xxxii.-xxxiv. (5) The
theory that the book was compiled from
previous works is not sufficiently
supported; and the attempt to analyze it
into its component parts is a hopeless
one, for all the elements of the book
are closely welded together into one
harmonious whole. nullCompare
Deuteronomy.
Bibliography: The
commentaries: M. Kalisch, 1855;
A. Knobel, 1857 (2d ed. by A. Dillmann,
1880;
3d ed. by V. Ryssel, 1897);
J. P. Lange, 1874;
Rawlinson, 2d ed., 1882;
H. L. Strack, 1894;
B. Baentsch, 1899.
Criticism: Th. Nöldeke, Untersuchungen
zur Kritik des Alten Testaments, 1869;
Colenso, The Pentateuch and Book of
Joshua, vi., 1872;
A. Kayser, Das Vorexilische, Buch der
Urgesch. Israels und Seine Erweiterungen,
1874;
Wellhausen, Die Composition des
Hexateuch und der Historischen Bücher
des Alten Testaments, 1876-77, 2d ed.
1889;
A. Jülicher, Die Quellen von Exodus, i.-vii.
7, 1880;
idem, Die Quellen von Exodus, vii.
8-xxiv. 11, in Jahrb. für
Protestantische Theologie, 1882, viii.
79-177, 272-315;
A. Kuenen, in Theologische Tijdschrift,
1880, xiv. 281-302 (Ex. xvi.);
ib. 1881, xv. 164-223, (Israel at Sinai,
Ex. xix.-xxiv., xxxii.-xxxiv.);
Cornill, in Stade's Zeitschrift, 1881,
xi. (on the relation of Ex. xvii. 1-7 to
Num. xx. 1-13);
E. Bertheau, Die Sieben Gruppen
Mosaischer Gesetze, etc., 1840;
Bruston, Les Quatre Sources des Lois de
l'Exode, in Revue de Théologie et de
Philosophie, 1883, xvi. 329-369;
idem, Des Cinq Documents de la Loi
Mosaïque, 1892;
J. W. Rothstein, Das Bundesbuch und die
Religionsgesch. Entwickelung Israels,
1888 (designates Ex. xxi. et seq. as a
commentary to the Decalogue);
Budde, Die Gesetzgebung der Mittleren
Bücher des Pentateuch, Insbesondere der
Quellen J und E, in Stade's Zeitschrift,
1891, xi. 193-234;
idem, Bemerkungen zum Bundesbuch, in ib.
pp. 99 et seq.;
B. W. Bacon, JE in the Middle Books of
the Pentateuch, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1890,
ix a, 161-200 (Ex. vii.-xii.);
ib. 1891, x b, 107-130 (Ex. i.-vii.);
ib. xi b. 1892, 177-200 (Ex. xii.
37-xvii. 16);
ib. 1893, xii a, 23-46 (Ex.
xviii.-xxxiv.);
idem, The Triple Tradition of the
Exodus, Hartford, 1894;
B. Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch, 1892 (Ex.
xx. 23-xxiii. 33);
L. B. Paton, The Original Form of the
Book of the Covenant, in Jour. Bib. Lit.
1893, xii b, 79-93;
Briggs, Higher Criticism of the
Hexateuch, 1893, Appendix, vi.;
idem, The Greater Book of the Covenant,
etc., pp. 211-232;
R. Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung
im A. T. 1896, pp. 70-99;
Steuernagel, Der Jehovistische, Bericht
über den Bundesschluss am Sinai (Ex.
xix.-xxiv., xxxi. 18, xxxiv. 28), in
Studien und Kritiken, 1899, p. 319.
On the Decalogue in particular: Franz
Delitzsch, Der Dekalog in Exodus und
Deuteronomium, in Zeitschrift für
Kirchliche Wissenschaft, 1882, iii.
281-299;
O. Naumann, Der Dekalog und das
Sinaitische Bundesbuch, ib. 1888, pp.
551-571;
C. G. Monteflore, Recent Criticism upon
Moses and the Pentateuchal Narratives of
the Decalogue, in J. Q. R. 1891, xi.
251-291;
Briggs, The Higher Criticism, Appendix,
iii. 181-187;
O. Meissner, Der Dekalog, 1893.
On the question of the division of the
Ten Commandments: Dillmann, l.c. p. 221.
On the Tabernacle: J. Popper, Der
Biblische Bericht über die Stiftshütte,
1862;
Delitzsch, in Zeitschrift für Kirchliche
Wissenschaft und Kirchliches Leben,
1880, i. 57-66, 622;
Green, in Presbyterian and Reformed
Review, v. 69-88;
A. Klostermann, in Neue Kirchliche
Zeitscrift, 1897, pp. 48-77, 228-253,
289-328, 353-383;
introductions by Kuenen, Cornill, Strack,
Driver, König, Baudissin, and especially
Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch,
1893. |
|
|
|
